Everything about Emperor Justinian totally explained
Justinian I or
Justinian the Great (
Latin:
Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus,
Greek:
Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός;
482/
483 –
November 13 or
November 14 565) was
Eastern Roman Emperor from
527 until his death, and second member of the
Dynasty, after his uncle
Justin I. He is considered a
saint amongst
Eastern Orthodox Christians, is also commemorated by the
Lutheran Church,
and is sometimes called the "
Last Roman" in popular historiography.
One of the most important figures of late antiquity, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the
Byzantine Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and empire. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but ultimately failed
renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire". This ambition was expressed in the partial recovery of the territories of the
Western Roman Empire, including the city of
Rome itself. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the
Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of
civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of
Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of
Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries.
The devastating
Plague of Justinian in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendor. The empire entered a period of decline not to be reversed until the Ninth Century.
Procopius provides our primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. The
Syriac chronicle of
John of Ephesus, which doesn't survive, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress,
Theodora. Procopius also wrote the
Anekdota (the so-called
Secret History), which reports on various scandals at Justinian's court. Other sources include the histories of
Agathias,
Menander Protector,
John Malalas, the
Paschal Chronicle, the chronicles of
Marcellinus Comes and
Victor of Tunnuna.
Life
Justinian, born in
482, was a
Latin-speaking
Illyrian peasant from a small village called
Tauresium, in the province of
Dardania (near
Justiniana Prima, which he founded later), in what is now
Leskovac, Central
Serbia. He was born as Petrus Sabbatius; the cognomen Justinianus, which he later took, is indicative of adoption by his uncle
Justin. His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the imperial guard (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler. Upon
Justin I's death on
August 1,
527, Justinian became the sole sovereign. Justinian's family came from a lowly and provincial background, and therefore he'd no power base in the traditional aristocracy of Constantinople. Instead, he surrounded himself with men and women of extraordinary talent, whom he selected not on the basis of aristocratic origin, but on the basis of merit. Around
525 he married
Theodora, who was by profession a
courtesan about 20 years his junior. Justinian would have, in earlier times, been unable to marry her because of her class, but his uncle Emperor Justin I'd passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes. Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent in marrying outside the
aristocratic class. The marriage caused a scandal, but Theodora would prove to be very intelligent, "street smart", a good judge of character and Justinian's greatest supporter. Other talented individuals included
Tribonian, his legal adviser; his finance ministers
John the Cappadocian and
Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented general
Belisarius.
Justinian's rule wasn't universally popular; early in his reign he almost lost his throne during the
Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as
562.
Justinian was struck by the
plague in the early 540s, but recovered. Theodora died, perhaps of cancer, in
548, at a relatively young age, and Justinian outlived her by almost twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died, on the night of
November 13-
November 14,
565, he left no children. He was succeeded by
Justin II, the son of his sister Vigilantia, who was married to Sophia, the niece of Empress Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the
Church of the Holy Apostles.
Legislative activities
Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all
Roman law, something that hadn't previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislature is known today as the
Corpus juris civilis. It consists of the
Codex Justinianus, the
Digesta or
Pandectae, the
Institutiones, and the
Novellae.
Early in his reign, Justinian appointed the
quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the
Codex Justinianus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on
April 7,
529. (The final version appeared in
534.) It was followed by the
Digesta (or
Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in
533, and by the
Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The
Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the
Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the
Novellae appeared in
Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire;
Latin, the traditional language of the
Roman Empire, was only poorly understood by most citizens of the Eastern Empire.
The
Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical
Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the
leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws,
senatorial consults (
senatusconsulta), imperial decrees,
case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (
responsa prudentum).
Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the
Basilica of
Basil I and
Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest, by the so-called
Pragmatic Sanction of
554), from where it was to pass to
Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code. It eventually passed to
Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to
Russia. It remains influential to this day.
Nika riots
Justinian's habit of choosing efficient, but unpopular advisors nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January
532, partisans of the
chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally divided among themselves, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the
Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss
Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him by the senator
Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor
Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital, but he remained in the city on the stirring words of
Theodora. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals
Belisarius and
Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.
The destruction that had taken place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed
Hagia Sophia.
Military activities
One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin which had slipped out of imperial control in the
5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the
Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The reconquests were in large part carried out by his general
Belisarius.
From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the
Sassanid Empire. In
530 a Persian army was defeated at
Daraa, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near
Callinicum. When king
Kavadh I of Persia died (September
531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor
Khosrau I (
532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where
Arian Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former
Western Roman Empire.
Conquest of North Africa, 533–534
The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the
Vandals in
North Africa. King
Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African
Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin
Gelimer in
530. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian.
In
533,
Belisarius with a fleet of 92
dromons escorting 500 transports, landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern
Tunisia with an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off-guard, at
Ad Decimum on
14 September 533 and
Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took
Carthage. King
Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in
Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a
triumph.
Sardinia and
Corsica, the
Balearic Islands, and the stronghold
Septem near
Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign.
An
African prefecture was established in April
534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the
Moors and military mutinies. The area wasn't completely pacified until
548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.
War in Italy, first phase, 535–540
As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king
Athalaric had died on
2 October 534, and a usurper,
Theodahad, had imprisoned queen
Amalasuntha,
Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on an island in
Lake Bolsena, where he'd her assassinated in
535. Thereupon
Belisarius with 7,500 men invaded
Sicily (
535) and advanced into Italy, sacking
Naples and capturing
Rome on
9 December 536. By that time
Theodahad had been deposed by the
Ostrogothic army, who had elected
Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged
Rome from February
537 to March
538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general,
Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign.
Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled
Narses in
539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in
540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital
Ravenna. There he was offered the title of
Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace which would leave the region north of the river
Po in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned to accept the offer, entered the city in May
540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured
Vitigis and his wife
Matasuentha with him.
War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562
Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the
Persians. Following a revolt against Byzantium in
Armenia in the late
530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of
Ostrogothic ambassadors, king
Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of
540. He first sacked
Beroea and then
Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged
Daras, and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of
Lazica near the
Black Sea, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.
Belisarius arrived in the East in
541, but, after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in
542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of disloyalty on behalf of the general reaching the court.
The outbreak of the
plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year
543. The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30,000 men, but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of
Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in
545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that the
Lazic War in the North continued for several years, until a second truce in
557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in
562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000
solidi) to be paid by the Romans.
War in Italy, second phase, 541–552
While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings
Ildibad and
Eraric (both murdered in
541) and especially
Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at
Faenza in
542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in
544, but lacked sufficient troops. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in
548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a
Gothic fleet with 200 ships. During this period the city of
Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December
546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in
547, and then again by the Goths in January
550. Totila also plundered
Sicily and attacked the Greek coastlines. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern
Visigothic Spain) under the command of
Narses. The Byzantine Roman army reached Ravenna in June
552, and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of
Busta Gallorum in the
Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at
Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale
Frankish invasion was defeated at
Casilinum, and Italy secured for the Empire, even though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.
Other campaigns
In addition to the other conquests, the Eastern Empire established a presence in
Visigothic Spain, when the usurper
Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against king
Agila. In
552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men under the octogenarian
Liberius, who had served under the Ostrogoth kings of Italy since the 490s. The Byzantines took
Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of
Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.
During Justinian's reign, the
Balkans suffered from several incursions by the
Turkic and
Slavic peoples who lived north of the
Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In
559 a particularly dangerous invasion of
Sklavinoi and
Kutrigurs under their
khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.
Results
Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realised. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the
530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented. While the final victory in Italy and the conquest of the coast of southern Spain significantly enlarged the area over which Byzantium could project its power and influence, and while they must have contributed to the empire's prestige, most of the conquests proved ephemeral. The greater part of Italy would be lost to the invading
Lombards three years after Justinian's death (
568), and within a century and a half Africa and Spain were forever lost for the empire.
Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself wasn't safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian
Menander Protector felt the need to explain the emperor's failure to protect the capital from the weakness of his body in his old age. In his efforts to renew the old Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched the resources of the Eastern Empire while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. Paradoxically, Justinian's military successes probably contributed to the empire's subsequent decline.
Religious activities
Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially
Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine had been condemned as a
heresy by the
Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of
Zeno I and
Anastasius had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy which proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, but he died before being able to promulgate any legislation to this effect. The empress Theodora sympathised with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.
Religious policy
As with his secular administration,
despotism appeared also in the emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law.
At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the
Trinity and the
Incarnation; and to threaten all
heretics with the appropriate penalties; whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by
due process of law. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church, and accorded legal force to the
canons of the four
ecumenical councils. The bishops in attendance at the
Second Council of Constantinople in
553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command; while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the
Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of the Church and
clergy, for protecting and extending
monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia or annual gifts from the imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation on monastic estates.
Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the
Codex and the
Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of
Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and
mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of
Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.
Religious relations with Rome
From the middle of the
fifth century onward increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. For one thing, the radicals on all sides felt themselves constantly repelled by the creed adopted by the
Council of Chalcedon to defend the biblical doctrine of the nature of Christ and bridge the gap between the
dogmatic parties. The letter of
Pope Leo I to
Flavian of Constantinople was widely considered in the East as the work of
Satan; so that nobody cared to hear of the Church of Rome. The emperors, however, had a policy of preserving the unity between Constantinople and
Rome; and this remained possible only if they didn't swerve from the line defined at
Chalcedon. In addition, the factions in the East which had become stirred up and disaffected because of Chalcedon needed restraining and pacifying. This problem proved the more difficult because, in the East, the dissenting groups exceeded supporters of Chalcedon both in numerical strength and in intellectual ability. Tension from the incompatibility of the two aims grew: whoever chose Rome and the West must renounce the East, and vice versa.
Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in
518, and put an end to the
Monophysite schism that had prevailed between Rome and Byzantium since
483. The recognition of the
Roman see as the highest ecclesiastical authority remained the cornerstone of his Western policy. Offensive as it was to many in the East, nonetheless Justinian felt himself entirely free to take a Despotic stance toward the
popes such as
Silverius and
Vigilius. While no compromise could ever be accepted by the dogmatic wing of the church, his sincere efforts at reconciliation gained him the approval of the major body of the church. A signal proof was his attitude in the
Theopaschite controversy. At the outset he was of the opinion that the question turned on a quibble of words. By degrees, however, Justinian came to understand that the formula at issue not only appeared orthodox, but might also serve as a conciliatory measure toward the Monophysites, and he made a vain attempt to do this in the religious conference with the followers of
Severus of Antioch, in
533.
Again, Justinian moved toward compromise in the religious edict of
March 15,
533, and congratulated himself that
Pope John II admitted the orthodoxy of the imperial confession. The serious blunder that he'd made at the beginning by abetting a severe persecution of the Monophysite bishops and monks and thereby embittering the population of vast regions and provinces, he remedied eventually. His constant aim now remained to win over the Monophysites, yet not to surrender the Chalcedonian faith. For many at court, he didn't go far enough: Theodora especially would have rejoiced to see the Monophysites favored unreservedly. Justinian, however, felt restrained by the complications that would have ensued with the West. But in the condemnation of the
Three Chapters Justinian tried to satisfy both the East and the West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. Although the pope assented to the condemnation, the West believed that the emperor had acted contrary to the decrees of Chalcedon. Though many delegates emerged in the East subservient to Justinian, many, especially the Monophysites, remained unsatisfied; all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.
Suppression of non-Christian religions
Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could be only the
Orthodox (Nicaean). Those of a different belief had to recognize that the process of consolidation, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of
Constantius II, would now vigorously continue. The
Codex contained two
statutes which decreed the total destruction of
paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (
John Malalas,
Theophanes,
John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.
Perhaps the most noteworthy event occurred in
529 when the
Neoplatonic Academy of
Athens was placed under state control by order of Justinian, effectively strangling this training-school for Hellenism.
Paganism was actively suppressed. In
Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus claimed to have
converted 70,000 pagans. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the
Heruli, the
Huns dwelling near the
Don, the
Abasgi, and the
Tzani in
Caucasia.
The worship of
Amun at
Augila in the
Libyan desert was abolished; and so were the remnants of the worship of
Isis on the island of
Philae, at the first
cataract of the
Nile. The
Presbyter Julian and the Bishop
Longinus conducted a mission among the
Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen
Christianity in
Yemen by despatching a bishop from
Egypt.
The
Jews, too, had to suffer; for not only did the authorities restrict their civil rights, and threaten their religious privileges, but the emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the
synagogue, and forbade, for instance, the use of the
Hebrew language in divine worship. The recalcitrant were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from
Syrtis Major, who resisted Belisarius in his
Vandal campaign, had to embrace Christianity; their synagogue became a church.
The emperor had much trouble with the
Samaritans, finding them refractory to Christianity and repeatedly in insurrection. He opposed them with rigorous edicts, but yet couldn't prevent hostilities towards Christians from taking place in
Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the
Manicheans too suffered severe persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. At
Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by
drowning.
Building activities, learning, art and literature
Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. Under Justinian's patronage the
San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed. Most notably, he'd the
Hagia Sophia, originally a
basilica style church that had been burnt down during the
Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. Another prominent church in the capital, the
Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the
Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a
column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the
Augustaeum in Constantinople in
543. It is possible that rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan aristocracy may have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital.
Justinian also strengthened the borders of the empire through the construction of fortifications, and assured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground
cisterns. During his reign a bridge over the river
Sangarius was built, securing a major trade route. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called
Justiniana Prima.
In Justinian's era, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including
Procopius and
Agathias, and poets such as
Paul the Silentiary and
Romanus the Melodist flourished during his reign. On the other hand, centers of learning as the Platonic Academy in Athens and the famous law school of
Beirut lost their importance during his reign. Another ancient institution, the Roman
consulate, was abolished in
541.
Economy and administration
As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as
Cornwall where
tin was exchanged for Roman corn. Within the empire, convoys sailing from
Alexandria provided Constantinople with corn, and Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of
Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product was
silk, which was imported and then processed in the empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in
541. In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the
Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. Then, in the early
550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from
Central Asia back to Constantinople, and silk became an indigenous Byzantine product.
At the start of Justinian I's reign he'd inherited a surplus 28,800,000
solidi (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from
Anastasius I and
Justin I. Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the
prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the
vicariates of the
dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalisation of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000
solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000
solidi in AD 550.
Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East prospered, although
Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (
526,
528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (
540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.
Despite all these measures, the empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the
6th century. The first one was the
plague, which lasted from
541 to
543 and, by decimating the empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labour and a rising of wages. The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early
540s. The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance.
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Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
